Staying Back, Falling Behind? How Social Responsibilities Shape the Livelihood Choices of Sons in Rural Denchukha

Abstract

This article explores the experiences of ‘involuntarily immobile’ rural men in Denchukha, southern Bhutan, focusing on how patrilineal inheritance and social responsibilities shape their livelihood choices. In Denchukha’s patrilocal and patrilineal system, sons inherit land and assume primary caregiving and household management duties, anchoring them to their natal homes despite economic challenges. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork and life-history interviews with five men aged 21 to 46, this article reveals how social norms can compel sons to sacrifice education, career aspirations, and migration opportunities to fulfill family obligations. This contrasts with Buddhist matrilineal communities in Bhutan, where women are tied to land, illustrating diverse inheritance and related mobility practices nationally. Declining agricultural returns and limited rural opportunities exacerbate men's constrained mobility, creating vulnerabilities largely overlooked in Gender Equality and Social Inclusion discourse. By foregrounding men’s caregiving roles and immobility within patrilineal systems, this article broadens understanding of gendered constraints on migration and livelihood in rural Bhutan.